The Last Success in an Era of Defeat

The final years of the 18th century – and indeed the last decades of the century as a whole – were a period in which the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth grew increasingly weaker and moved towards collapse. Internal problems and hostile neighbouring powers presented challenges that the Polish–Lithuanian state was unable to overcome. Elected king in 1768, Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski (better known by his adopted regnal name Stanisław August), despite his determined efforts, was unable to effectively resist either internal opposition within the Commonwealth or pressure from Russia. The reforms he attempted to introduce upon ascending the throne provoked growing dissatisfaction among the nobility and led to Russian intervention. This, in turn, ultimately resulted in the Bar Confederation and the First Partition of Poland. The Russians also forced the Partition Sejm to establish the Permanent Council, an institution intended to supervise and restrict the king’s authority. However, Poniatowski managed to use the Council to his advantage and cooperate with it as a substitute for a government. Nevertheless, the peak of Stanisław August Poniatowski’s reforming activity came at the turn of the 1780s and 1790s.

A Sejm Beyond Russian Control

The General Sejm convened in 1788 initially had Russian support. This was because St Petersburg wanted the Polish nobility to approve the signing of a Polish–Russian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, with which Russia was at war. However, Prussia opposed the agreement and successfully worked to persuade the deputies to abandon these plans. The “Prussian option” ultimately prevailed, and the Sejm initiated a series of reforms – a development that, for obvious reasons, was unacceptable to Russia. May 1791 proved to be a decisive moment.

Recognising That the Fate of Us All Depends Solely upon the Establishment and Perfection of the National Constitution…

From the very beginning of the proceedings of the Great Sejm (1788–1792), efforts had been made to introduce political reforms in Poland. However, there was no consensus on the direction these changes should take. Several political factions emerged within the Sejm, each divided into numerous wings. Among the most important players were: the Court Party, centred around Stanisław August Poniatowski and his supporters; the Patriotic Party, including figures such as Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj; and the Hetman Party, represented by figures such as Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki and Franciszek Ksawery Branicki. Poniatowski and his “team” sought to strengthen executive power without breaking Poland’s ties with Russia. The “patriotic” faction also supported reforms, but wanted them to be based on an alliance with Prussia and a break with Russian influence. The third faction, meanwhile, aimed to preserve the “Golden Liberty” of the nobility, which by that time had become little more than a “tinsel imitation of democracy”. Its goal was to maintain the greatest possible concentration of political power in the hands of the magnates. Reaching any form of consensus between all factions was therefore virtually impossible. A different approach had to be taken.

In the second half of 1790, the Patriotic Party and the Court Party moved closer together, and their cooperation developed over the following months. There were concerns, however, that opponents of the new legislation would prevent any binding decisions from being made. It was therefore decided that the next session of the Sejm, originally scheduled to begin on 5th May 1791, should instead be brought forward to 3rd May, when most opponents of the constitution were still away on Easter holidays. In addition, only supporters of the new legislation were summoned to the session, and they were invited individually, avoiding any official announcement of the date.

On 3rd May, the Royal Castle, where the Sejm was meeting, was surrounded by the Royal Guard and military units commanded by Prince Józef Poniatowski. A total of 182 deputies took part in the proceedings, of whom as many as 72 were opposed to the Constitution. Despite this, supporters of the new laws succeeded in passing the Government Act by a majority vote. The King swore the oath before the Bishop of Kraków, Feliks Paweł Turski, and called upon those present to proceed to St John’s Collegiate Church for a thanksgiving service.

Illegally, but Effectively

The Constitution of 3 May – or, more precisely, the Government Act of 3 May 1791 – was a remarkable achievement of the declining Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It should nevertheless be noted that it was introduced through a political coup, as this was probably the only way to achieve the intended objective. Despite this, the Constitution did not remain in force for long. Soon after its adoption came the formation of the Targowica Confederation, the War in Defence of the Constitution, the Second Partition of Poland, the Kościuszko Uprising, and ultimately the Third Partition of the Commonwealth.

Piotr Bosko

Translated from Polish by Małgorzata Giełzakowska