Adam Czesław Dobroński
An uncommon collection of ten photographs recently appeared on the desk of the editorial office of ‘World of Siberia’. Sent from the Polish Institute and Sikorski Musem in London, they depict Polish settlements in Africa during World War Two. We asked distinguished historian Prof. Adam Czeslaw Dobronski to pass comment on them. We present below, the substance of what he wrote.
In the not so distant past, residents of Polish settlements during World War II gathered together to share their accounts of the years of trepidation spent in Siberia, Kazakhstan, in the territories of northern Soviet Russia. “Under the first Soviet” they were unceremoniously deported from their family homes in the eastern territories of the Second Polish Republic, the youngest of them born on the so-called inhuman land. (This term regularly makes an appearance in the pages of memoirs and academic studies. However, I remember protests uttered at the end of the last century in Irkutsk: – Why inhuman land, after all, our grandfathers and fathers lived here for decades, as we now live here. The authorities were inhuman, the land is beautiful, albeit dangerous.) Curious about their fate, over the course of numerous visits to the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London (IPiMS) I made use of the contents of a special collection with the reference number B. 174 and documentation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of the Second Polish Republic. President Karolina Kaczorowska frequently related to me her childhood spent far beyond the country’s eastern border. These conversations inspired me to such an extent, that with the help of Artur Woźniakowski, I flew out to Uganda to observe firsthand the village of Koya and the cemetery left there in the wake of the Polish settlement. Karolina and Artur’s contemporaries, after navigating their way out of the USSR, also wound up in other settlements in Africa, India, New Zealand and Mexico, as well as in other countries of the free world.
19 Polish settlements
Altogether, 19 Polish settlements were founded in Africa, being populated by over 20 thousand Polish citizens. They were transported by boat from Persia to the ports of Mombasa, Tanga and Dar es Salam, Mozambique, and from there were sent onwards, deep into darkest Africa. The majority of the settlements were established in Tanganyika, Uganda, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa. Transit camps also existed at Makindu in Kenya, Fort Jameson and Livingston in Northern Rhodesia and Gatooma in Southern Rhodesia, as well as separated houses and smaller settlements.
On the surface, through observation of the attached photographs, the Polish settlements appear similar to one another. In reality, they differed significantly in terms of location, size, and function. Women accounted for almost half of all the inhabitants (47 per cent), with children and adolescents accounting for slightly fewer (41.5 per cent). At that time, many husbands, fathers and eldest sons were fulfilling their service in the Polish Armed Forces in the West. About 90 per cent of all settlement inhabitants hailed from the Eastern Borderlands, with those from rural (peasant) backgrounds and military settlers predominating. Direct management of the settlements was undertaken by officials of Polish delegations and administrative offices. Funding however, was ensured by the English, who retained supervisory control. After July 1945, that role became more prominent, and in 1947 liquidation of the Polish settlements in Africa was begun, lasting until the turn of 1949–1950.
A wealth of memoirs and academic texts have been published, alongside the remaining photographs, archival materials and museum exhibits, reports and press records, letters, and reportage. Still lacking however, are monographs on the majority of Polish settlements from the World War II period, into the first post-war years. In 2011, at the Pedagogical University of Krakow, the Centre for Documentation of Displacement, Expulsion and Resettlement was established, which set out to continue the earlier activities of the students’ research group. Staff from this center, under the direction of Prof. Hubert Chudzio, gathered together documentation and undertook the reconstruction of cemeteries scattered throughout the regions of Eastern and Southern Africa.
Polish children in the photos from Africa
I will commence my commentary on the photographs from the resources of the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum with reference to facts garnered from the February 1946 study: The number and living conditions of Polish children in exile within Europe and beyond. The Polish Embassy in Kuibyshev was able to establish that in total, the NKVD deported 117,400 children from the occupied Polish territories deep into the USSR. Following the signing of the Sikorski-Majski Agreement, from March to September 1943 it was possible to extract approximately 15.3 thousand Polish children from those areas under Soviet rule. An orphanage was designated for them in Ashgabat in Persia, which served as as a rallying point, from where the former displaced youth were sent to live in India, New Zealand, Mexico and the African continent.
In East Africa, 6,925 children and adolescents aged 7 to 18 were accommodated, including 2,509 in Uganda, 2,404 in Tanganyika, 49 in Kenya, 573 in Northern Rhodesia, and 1,390 in Southern Rhodesia. Girls visibly predominated (5,098), as many boys and young men remained in the Middle East at academies intended to prepare them for military service. “The Ministry of Social Welfare and the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment has expended a great deal of effort to work out the organization of the life of the refugees, with special emphasis placed on child care in terms of both the level of cultural and mental development of the refugees themselves. Throughout all of the refugee centres, the most important educational factor was the Polish school […]. In East Africa there are: 22 kindergartens, 20 elementary schools, 6 secondary schools, 14 vocational schools spread out over 15 settlements.” While in South Africa, in Oudtshoorn, a Polish children’s home for orphans and the lonely was established. In addition, Polish students were housed in Cape Town.
Schools
The great achievement of the Polish educational authorities and those directly in charge of the settlements, lay in the organization of schools. Success was attained through the assistance of teaching and support staff and parents. The younger students displayed a sense of good will and managed to integrate play with learning, while the older ones swiftly came to value the importance of a Polish education whilst residing in a foreign country. The effects of the schools’ work can be accessed through a reading of the report drawn up by Seweryn Szczepański, head of the educational institution of the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment (WRiOP), for the period up until December 31, 1945. Found within the 108 pages of typescript are numerical data and grades. The entire text is divided up into eight chapters: primary education and kindergartens, general secondary and vocational education, extracurricular education, textbooks and teaching aids, musical education, scouting and general issues.
Among all of these descriptions there was an emphasis on the general good behavior of students, the difficulty of the mission faced by teachers, along with shortcomings related to materials. There were three primary schools in Koya (Uganda). In spite of the prevalence of malaria cases, attendance reached 93%. In Masindi (Uganda), the number of schools was reduced to three. Ninety percent of students were the children of farmers and military settlers. In Ifunda (Tanganyika), the school cooperated with the local Polish YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) and Catholic Action. Satisfactory teaching results were communicated from the only school in Kidugali (Tanganyika), on the other hand the assessment which emanated from Kondoi (also Tanganyika) was as follows: “Children notably of rural origin, quiet and calm. Intelligence level rather low”. The school in Marogoro (Tanganyika) was shut down in December 1945, with 49 children being sent onwards to schools in Kidugali and Ifunda. The largest educational site was to be found in Tengeru (Tanganyika), where 1,171 children studied in the 36 classrooms of three freshly-renovated primary schools.
In Northern Rhodesia, schools were located in: Abercorn (187 students), Bwana M’Kubwa (404 children), Lusaka (where 45 students from India were enrolled), Marandellas. In addition, one school comprising 203 students was situated in Rusape (Southern Rhodesia), two in Oudtshoorn and one in Rongai (Kenya). In summary, S. Szczepański highlighted the following issues: there was a tangible lack of qualified teachers and in almost all of the settlements “(…) there are children, more noticeably among boys, who, after their transition through Russia, due to the conditions of community life, and very often due to the negative influence of their immediate environment, are difficult to mentor. There was cause for celebration in the numerous and active school organisations, while at the same time concern about diseases related to the tropical climate, and “school buildings in 80% of settlements are constructed with weak materials (mud, sticks, grass-covered roofs), which require constant renovation and moreover, fail to protect young people against wind, dust, and “rain.” Emphasizing the role of schools and their quality, along with the engagement of students, was supposed to be a forceful argument for convincing English authorities to continue their funding of Polish educational institutions.
In 12 towns, with the exception of the decommissioned settlement in Marogoro and the Polish Children’s Home in Oudtshoorn, 383 children were enrolled in kindergartens. The timetable was varied, for their second breakfast children received: milk, bread, vegetables and fruit.
The author of the report dealt with the situation of secondary schools with particular conscientiousness. In 1945, the work in all secondary schools continued as normal, despite the “unfortunate political news” being communicated from Europe. Teacher training and demonstration lessons were carried out, and the restocking of books and school supplies gradually improved.
Cultural life of young people at the equator
By the end of 1945, there existed both junior high and high schools in seven of the Polish settlements in Africa. The school in Digglefold in Southern Rhodesia was hailed as an exemplary one, mainly due to the efforts of the principal, Dr. Ferdynand Zarzycki, who also served as settlement manager. It published The Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology and The Life of the Romans along with other literary texts. The facility in Kidugala was not equipped with a sports hall and six of the eight teachers were not accredited with full qualifications. There existed, however, student groups: literary, sports, decorative and singing; several theatrical plays were staged. Deficiencies in equipment were partially compensated for by the active outlook of the whole community. In Koji, junior high courses had existed for three years, and a coeducational junior high school was scheduled to open in the following school year. Physical education instruction was carried out there by a qualified teacher, the only specialist in this field in the whole of Africa. As exemplified by Lusaka, it was assessed that substandard building conditions and an absence of cooperation between teachers and parents had a negative influence on the attitude of young people. Disputes commonly arose, along with the appearance of unsatisfactory grades. Complaints regarding the disagreeable conditions also surfaced with regard to Masindi, the largest Polish educational institution in Africa (353 students and 19 teachers). In spite of this, the student governing body there worked efficiently, where the newspaper “On the Equator” was published, and cultural life flourished. The local troop of the Polish Scouting Association consisted of four patrols. Singled out for praise was the center at Tengeru, the second largest in Africa (Stefan Batory Junior High School and High School with 314 students). Eighty six percent of young people were engaged in scouting, as well as with the Sodality of Our Lady. The institution, “held in high esteem by society”, boasted the highest percentage of qualified teachers, and its well-stocked library numbered over 500 volumes. Rongai, with one grade of junior high school, was considered the “healthiest” place, which accounted for over 335 children, mostly orphans, being gathered there. The director instituted firm discipline due to the presence of many “oversized” youngsters among his charges, and the teaching staff was made up of primary school teachers.
Attaining a profession
In the realm of vocational education, achievements were evident, but were superseded by greater needs. Most of the youth who came to reside in the Polish settlements in Africa were unprepared for study in general secondary schools, although they desired a profession for two reasons. The first was uncertainty regarding their fate in a foreign land, the second being an awareness of the necessity to take up work after returning home. Industrial education encompassed six institutions with 296 students, of whom orphans and half-orphans accounted for 43% of the student body. These were: one class of the secondary school of mechanical engineering in Oudtshoorn, two classes in the school of mechanical engineering in Tengeru (with well-equipped workshops and a motorcycle course), the secondary school of tailoring in Oudtshoorn (made up of two classes, from which students sent out packages of clothing to their compatriots in Germany) and in Tengeru (three classes, in total 236 students, where exhibitions of the produced works were arranged), the secondary school of lingerie in Masindi (there was only one class, which nevertheless attracted a great deal of interest). Commercial education was made up of co-educational merchant secondary schools in: Tengeru, Masindi and Oudtshoorn. A combined total of 298 students were accommodated for, although there were deficits in both staff and expert assistance. Agricultural schools (namely those in Tengeru) were considered less appealing, the majority being closed down. The facility in Rusape schooled adolescent girls for the prospective role of housekeeper.
Life outside school
Descriptions of extra-curricular education in the report fared rather differently. In all of the largest Polish settlements, both day and evening courses were conducted: general education, trade and cooperative, tailoring, and less commonly, accounting, after-school workers’ and English courses. In Koya, they took into account the necessity of preparing disabled people for employment. Talks were given, papers were issued, up-to-date information and commentaries were circulated. In Tengeru, over the course of the year the after-school youth club held 49 meetings and extra-curricular classes. Interesting proposals were put forward by the so-called Sunday universities: in Bwana M’Kubwa issues related to tropical hygiene were presented, in Lusaka a lecture was convened on the subject of “Polish children and youth under occupation”, and in Marandellas a discussion took place with regard to the English psyche, democracy and dictatorship.
Occasionally, theatrical performances and exhibitions were arranged. In Oudtshoorn, over the course of a year, a modest total of 104 readers utilized the local library and reading room facilities. Available for use in the two common rooms there, were games, magazines, a radio and gramophones. On Sundays, dance classes were organized as a “sporting activity for both sexes”. Initially, these classes were undertaken by teachers and after-school staff. Only in November 1944 was a cultural and educational department of the Delegation of the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment established in Nairobi. S. Szczepański gave expression to his hope, that now “community centers will move in the right direction” and that there will be a noticeable presence of “people with the necessary professional expertise”
Textbooks and other books printed in Tehran and later in London, were utilised. The situation was less advantageous in vocational institutions, where sometimes only the teacher was in possession of a textbook. Teaching resources from the American Polish community were also anticipated. Boasting 181 students, The Stanisław Moniuszko Music School in Tengeru achieved notable success, while in Koji some junior high school choirs and a folk choir flourished.
African Scouts
The scouting work was enthusiastically assessed, confirmed by the words of scout instructor Karolina Mariampolska (Kaczorowska): “Scouting is the most popular and liveliest youth organization. In the present circumstances, it fulfills a useful educational role among young people.” In East Africa, by the end of 1945, there were in total, 2,713 girl and boy scouts and 1,371 cub scouts. Also recollected, were Camps and exercises carried out together with English scouts.
The final paragraphs of the report make reference to the rumors which abounded regarding the upcoming repatriation of Polish refugees from Africa. Subsequent rumours also speculated that representatives of the Warsaw authorities intended to visit the settlements to agitate for a return to Poland. “The attitude of Polish refugees in Africa towards the puppet “Warsaw Government” is essentially negative.” They were particularly fearful of a demand to surrender orphans from settlement boarding schools.
What will happen to Poland?
Scant attention is paid to the Polish settlements that were established after the evacuation of certain citizens of the Second Polish Republic spirited out of Soviet Russia. I have managed to shed light only on selected corners of the lives, of mainly children (students), scattered throughout Africa. And basically only by referencing the official data, lifted from reports, but somehow all of them longed and dreamed, feared for the fate of their loved ones, and fretted with curiosity over events in their hometowns, over Poland’s future. In exotic and at the same time politically complicated circumstances, they matured to the extent of being able to make those critical life decisions.
Ph.D. Adam Czesław Dobroński – historian, professor emeritus of the University of Białystok, Head of the Council for War Veterans and Victims of Oppression in 1994-1997
All photographs originate from the collections of the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London.
Subheadings are the work of the editors.
Translated by: Jan Dobrodumow