On February 4, 1945, a meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin began at the Livadia Palace on the outskirts of Yalta. Crimea, including the meeting venue, was completely destroyed. Because of this, everything necessary, including furniture, had been brought from Moscow.
Soldiers of the First Polish Army marching in a parade in Warsaw, January 19, 1945; public domain. This parade of victorious troops marching between...
It is often said that, at its peak, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a European empire spanning vast territories. This is, of course, true. However, one must bear in mind that this state existed across the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries (and—if one considers earlier unions between Lithuania and the Crown, rather than just the Union of Lublin of 1569—to some extent in the 15th and even the 14th centuries as well). Throughout this period, the Commonwealth’s borders shifted repeatedly, as these were times of constant warfare and global upheaval—as is often the case in history. Consequently, there is no simple answer to the question of exactly how large the Commonwealth was or precisely which territories it encompassed. It is possible, however, to identify when its territory was at its greatest extent, how it took shape, and roughly how many square kilometers it covered. Let us, then, turn our attention to the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries.
It may not have been a country that endured for ages—history has seen states that existed longer yet are scarcely remembered today. Nevertheless, during its 69-year existence (falling just four days short of seventy), the Soviet Union left an indelible mark on history like few others. Unfortunately, it did so in letters of blood.
In the “ring” near Moscow, two formidable adversaries stood face to face. In the “brown corner” was the Wehrmacht, fresh from its summer successes but also bearing the weight of the *rasputitsa* and freezing temperatures—weeks that had been grueling, demoralizing, and draining. Opposite them, in the red corner, were the Soviet forces; while they could have viewed the opening weeks of the fighting as a catastrophe, they were now the ones—motivated by their opponent’s worsening plight—poised to dictate the terms of battle.
“Poles! The hour of vengeance has come. Today die or prevail! Let us go, and let your breasts be Thermopylae for your enemies!”
The date of 11 November 1918, being the day on which Poland regained its independence, is a symbolic date. Exactly on that day, an armistice ending the First World War was concluded in a wagon in the forest of Compiègne.
On November 3, 1957, at 7:30 a.m. Moscow time, the Sputnik 8K71PS rocket launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Mounted at its tip was the Sputnik 2 satellite, carrying Laika, who had been on board since October 31. It was understood from the very beginning that the dog would not survive the mission. Estimates suggested she would live for about ten days, at which point an automated system was to administer poisoned food.
To this day, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier remains one of the most important sites on Poland’s patriotic map. It is the venue for the majority of state ceremonies attended by the country’s highest-ranking officials. However, the years of World War II brought a threat to this site.
Almost everyone has heard of the events that took place in Kraków in April 1525. It was then that Albrecht Hohenzollern, the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, paid homage to the Polish King Sigismund the Old. Ducal Prussia became a Polish fief, and Albrecht himself became a vassal of the Polish monarch and the Duke of Prussia. These events went down in history as the Prussian Homage and remain a fixture in school textbooks to this day; indeed, 1525 is one of the most significant dates in Polish history—one that students learn in school and long remember.
Yet, eighty-six years later, a similar ceremony took place in Warsaw—an episode of our history that remains little known to this day. This is a pity, for it serves as proof that our turbulent history, often fraught with pain, also holds room for events highlighting the past power and significance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Specifically, this event occurred on October 29, 1611, in Warsaw, when a former Russian tsar and his closest entourage paid homage to Sigismund III Vasa, the ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
